How Did Muckrakers Change Government And Society

Progressive Era reform-minded journalists

McClure's (comprehend, Jan 1901) published many early muckraker articles.

The muckrakers were reform-minded journalists, writers, and photographers in the Progressive Era in the Us (1890s–1920s) who claimed to expose corruption and wrongdoing in established institutions, ofttimes through sensationalist publications. The modern term generally references investigative journalism or watchdog journalism; investigative journalists in the US are occasionally called "muckrakers" informally.

The muckrakers played a highly visible office during the Progressive Era.^[1] Muckraking magazines—notably McClure'southward of the publisher S. S. McClure—took on corporate monopolies and political machines, while trying to raise public sensation and acrimony at urban poverty, dangerous working conditions, prostitution, and child labor.^[two] Most of the muckrakers wrote nonfiction, but fictional exposés often had a major bear on, also, such every bit those by Upton Sinclair.^[iii]

In contemporary American usage, the term can refer to journalists or others who "dig deep for the facts" or, when used pejoratively, those who seek to cause scandal.^[4] ^[5] The term is a reference to a grapheme in John Bunyan's classic Pilgrim's Progress, "the Man with the Muck-rake", who rejected conservancy to focus on filth. It became popular after President Theodore Roosevelt referred to the character in a 1906 speech; Roosevelt best-selling that "the men with the muck rakes are ofttimes indispensable to the well existence of society; but simply if they know when to stop raking the muck."^[4]

History [edit]

While a literature of reform had already appeared by the mid-19th century, the kind of reporting that would come to be called "muckraking" began to appear around 1900.^[six] Past the 1900s, magazines such every bit Collier's Weekly, Munsey'due south Magazine and McClure's Magazine were already in broad circulation and read avidly by the growing middle class.^[seven] ^[viii] The January 1903 issue of McClure'southward is considered to exist the official starting time of muckraking journalism,^[9] although the muckrakers would get their label afterwards. Ida M. Tarbell ("The History of Standard Oil"), Lincoln Steffens ("The Shame of the Cities") and Ray Stannard Bakery ("The Right to Work"), simultaneously published famous works in that single issue. Claude H. Wetmore and Lincoln Steffens' previous article "Tweed Days in St. Louis" in McClure's Oct 1902 consequence was chosen the first muckraking article.

Changes in journalism prior to 1903 [edit]

The muckrakers would become known for their investigative journalism, evolving from the eras of "personal journalism"—a term historians Emery and Emery used in The Printing and America (6th ed.) to depict the 19th century newspapers that were steered past stiff leaders with an editorial phonation (p. 173)—and yellow journalism.

One of the biggest urban scandals of the post-Civil War era was the corruption and bribery case of Tammany boss William M. Tweed in 1871 that was uncovered by newspapers. In his first muckraking article "Tweed Days in St. Louis", Lincoln Steffens exposed the graft, a system of political corruption, that was ingrained in St. Louis. While some muckrakers had already worked for reform newspapers of the personal journalism variety, such equally Steffens who was a reporter for the New York Evening Post under Edwin Lawrence Godkin,^[10] other muckrakers had worked for yellow journals before moving on to magazines around 1900, such as Charles Edward Russell who was a announcer and editor of Joseph Pulitzer's New York World.^[eleven] Publishers of yellow journals, such every bit Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst, were more intent on increasing apportionment through scandal, criminal offence, amusement and sensationalism.^[12]

Simply as the muckrakers became well known for their crusades, journalists from the eras of "personal journalism" and "yellowish journalism" had gained fame through their investigative manufactures, including articles that exposed wrongdoing. Note that in yellow journalism, the idea was to stir up the public with sensationalism, and thus sell more papers. If, in the process, a social wrong was exposed that the boilerplate man could go indignant nigh, that was fine, but information technology was not the intent to correct social wrongs equally it was with true investigative journalists and muckrakers.

Julius Chambers of the New York Tribune could be considered to be the original muckraker. Chambers undertook a journalistic investigation of Bloomingdale Asylum in 1872, having himself committed with the aid of some of his friends and his newspaper's city editor. His intent was to obtain information about declared abuse of inmates. When manufactures and accounts of the experience were published in the Tribune, it led to the release of twelve patients who were not mentally ill, a reorganization of the staff and administration of the establishment and, somewhen, to a alter in the lunacy laws.^[13] This after led to the publication of the book A Mad World and Its Inhabitants (1876). From this time onward, Chambers was frequently invited to speak on the rights of the mentally ill and the need for proper facilities for their accommodation, care and treatment.^[xiv]

Nellie Bly, some other yellow journalist, used the undercover technique of investigation in reporting 10 Days in a Mad-House, her 1887 exposé on patient abuse at Bellevue Mental Infirmary, first published as a serial of articles in The World paper and then equally a book.^[15] Nellie would go along to write more articles on corrupt politicians, sweat-shop working conditions and other societal injustices.

Other works that predate the muckrakers [edit]

Helen Hunt Jackson (1831–1885) –A Century of Dishonor, U.Due south. policy regarding Native Americans.
Henry Demarest Lloyd (1847–1903) – Wealth Against Commonwealth, exposed the corruption within the Standard Oil Visitor.
Ida B. Wells (1862–1931) – an author of a series of articles concerning Jim Crow laws and the Chesapeake and Ohio Railroad in 1884, and co-owned the newspaper The Free Oral communication in Memphis in which she began an anti-lynching campaign.
Ambrose Bierce (1842–1913(?)) – writer of a long-running series of articles published from 1883 through 1896 in The Wasp and the San Francisco Examiner attacking the Large Four and the Primal Pacific Railroad for political corruption.
B. O. Bloom (1858–1918) – author of articles in The Loonshit from 1889 through 1909 advocating for prison reform and prohibition of alcohol.
Jacob Riis (1849–1914) – author of How the Other Half Lives, advocating for changes to tenements through flash photography

The muckrakers appeared at a moment when journalism was undergoing changes in manner and practice. In response to yellow journalism, which had exaggerated facts, objective journalism, as exemplified by The New York Times nether Adolph Ochs after 1896, turned away from sensationalism and reported facts with the intention of existence impartial and a newspaper of record.^[xvi] The growth of wire services had also contributed to the spread of the objective reporting mode. Muckraking publishers like Samuel S. McClure also emphasized factual reporting,^[9] only he also wanted what historian Michael Schudson had identified as one of the preferred qualities of journalism at the fourth dimension, namely, the mixture of "reliability and sparkle" to interest a mass audition.^[17] In contrast with objective reporting, the journalists, whom Roosevelt dubbed "muckrakers", saw themselves primarily every bit reformers and were politically engaged.^[18] Journalists of the previous eras were not linked to a single political, populist motion as the muckrakers were associated with Progressive reforms. While the muckrakers continued the investigative exposures and sensational traditions of yellow journalism, they wrote to change society. Their work reached a mass audience as circulation figures of the magazines rose on account of visibility and public involvement.

Magazines [edit]

A map from 1894 past W. T. Stead, pioneer announcer of the "new journalism", which paved the manner for the modern tabloid.

Magazines were the leading outlets for muckraking journalism. Samuel Due south. McClure and John Sanborn Phillips started McClure's Magazine in May 1893. McClure led the mag industry by cutting the price of an event to 15 cents, attracting advertisers, giving audiences illustrations and well-written content then raising ad rates subsequently increased sales, with Munsey's and Cosmopolitan following suit.^[nineteen]

McClure sought out and hired talented writers, like the then unknown Ida M. Tarbell or the seasoned announcer and editor Lincoln Steffens. The magazine'southward puddle of writers were associated with the muckraker motion, such as Ray Stannard Baker, Burton J. Hendrick, George Kennan (explorer), John Moody (fiscal annotator), Henry Reuterdahl, George Kibbe Turner, and Judson C. Welliver, and their names adorned the front covers. The other magazines associated with muckraking journalism were American Magazine (Lincoln Steffens), Arena (Chiliad. West. Galvin and John Moody), Collier'south Weekly (Samuel Hopkins Adams, C.P. Connolly, Fifty. R. Glavis, Volition Irwin, J. G. Oskison, Upton Sinclair), Cosmopolitan (Josiah Flynt, Alfred Henry Lewis, Jack London, Charles P. Norcross, Charles Edward Russell), Everybody's Mag (William Hard, Thomas William Lawson, Benjamin B. Lindsey, Frank Norris, David Graham Phillips, Charles Edward Russell, Upton Sinclair, Lincoln Steffens, Merrill A. Teague, Bessie and Marie Van Vorst), Hampton'south (Rheta Childe Dorr, Benjamin B. Hampton, John L. Mathews, Charles Edward Russell, and Judson C. Welliver), The Independent (George Walbridge Perkins, Sr.), Outlook (William Hard), Pearson's Magazine (Alfred Henry Lewis, Charles Edward Russell), Twentieth Century (George French), and World's Work (C.M. Keys and Q.P.).^[xx] Other titles of interest include Chatauquan, Punch, St. Nicholas. In addition, Theodore Roosevelt wrote for Scribner's Magazine afterward leaving function.

Origin of the term, Theodore Roosevelt [edit]

Later President Theodore Roosevelt took part in 1901, he began to manage the press corps. To exercise and so, he elevated his press secretary to chiffonier status and initiated press conferences. The muckraking journalists who emerged effectually 1900, similar Lincoln Steffens, were not as piece of cake for Roosevelt to manage as the objective journalists, and the President gave Steffens access to the White Business firm and interviews to steer stories his way.^[21] ^[22]

Roosevelt used the press very effectively to promote give-and-take and support for his Square Deal policies amidst his base in the centre-form electorate. When journalists went after different topics, he complained about their wallowing in the mud.^[23] In a speech on April 14, 1906 on the occasion of dedicating the Business firm of Representatives office building, he drew on a character from John Bunyan'southward 1678 classic, Pilgrim's Progress, saying:

...you may think the clarification of the Man with the Muck-rake, the man who could await no style but downward with the muck-rake in his hands; who was offered a celestial crown for his muck-rake, but who would neither look upward nor regard the crown he was offered, only continued to rake to himself the filth of the flooring.^[24]

While cautioning virtually possible pitfalls of keeping ane'due south attention e'er trained downwardly, "on the muck", Roosevelt emphasized the social do good of investigative muckraking reporting, saying:

There are, in the trunk politic, economic and social, many and grave evils, and in that location is urgent necessity for the sternest war upon them. There should be relentless exposure of and attack upon every evil man whether politician or business man, every evil practise, whether in politics, in business, or in social life. I hail as a benefactor every writer or speaker, every human who, on the platform, or in book, magazine, or newspaper, with merciless severity makes such attack, provided always that he in his plow remembers that the attack is of use only if it is absolutely truthful.

Most of these journalists detested being called muckrakers. They felt betrayed that Roosevelt would describe them with such a term afterwards they had helped him with his election. Muckraker David Graham Philips believed that the tag of muckraker brought about the end of the movement as it was easier to group and assail the journalists.^[25]

The term eventually came to be used in reference to investigative journalists who reported virtually and exposed such issues as crime, fraud, waste product, public health and safety, graft, and illegal financial practices. A muckraker's reporting may span businesses and government.

Early 20th century muckraking [edit]

Early writers of the muckraking tradition

Some of the key documents that came to define the piece of work of the muckrakers were:

Ray Stannard Baker published "The Right to Work" in McClure'due south Magazine in 1903, nearly coal mine atmospheric condition, a coal strike, and the state of affairs of non-striking workers (or scabs). Many of the not-striking workers had no special preparation or knowledge in mining, since they were only farmers looking for work. His investigative work portrayed the unsafe conditions in which these people worked in the mines, and the dangers they faced from union members who did not want them to piece of work.

Lincoln Steffens published "Tweed Days in St. Louis", in which he profiled corrupt leaders in St. Louis, in October 1902, in McClure's Mag.^[26] The prominence of the article helped lawyer Joseph Folk to pb an investigation of the decadent political ring in St. Louis.

Ida Tarbell published The Ascent of the Standard Oil Company in 1902, providing insight into the manipulation of trusts. One trust they manipulated was with Christopher Dunn Co. She followed that work with The History of The Standard Oil Company: the Oil State of war of 1872, which appeared in McClure's Magazine in 1908. She condemned Rockefeller's immoral and ruthless concern tactics and emphasized "our national life is on every side distinctly poorer, uglier, meaner, for the kind of influence he exercises." Her book generated enough public anger that it led to the splitting up of Standard Oil under the Sherman Anti Trust Human action.^[27]

Upton Sinclair published The Jungle in 1906, which revealed atmospheric condition in the meat packing manufacture in the The states and was a major factor in the establishment of the Pure Food and Drug Human activity and Meat Inspection Act.^[28] Sinclair wrote the book with the intent of addressing unsafe working conditions in that industry, not food safety.^[28] Sinclair was non a professional journalist just his story was first serialized before being published in book class. Sinclair considered himself to be a muckraker.

"The Treason of the Senate: Aldrich, the Head of it All", past David Graham Phillips, published every bit a serial of articles in Cosmopolitan magazine in February 1906, described abuse in the U.S. Senate. This work was a keystone in the creation of the Seventeenth Amendment which established the election of Senators through popular vote.

The Great American Fraud (1905) by Samuel Hopkins Adams revealed fraudulent claims and endorsements of patent medicines in America. This article shed light on the many imitation claims that pharmaceutical companies and other manufacturers would brand as to the potency of their medicines, drugs and tonics. This exposure contributed heavily to the creation of the Pure Nutrient and Drug Act alongside Upton Sinclair's work. Using the example of Peruna in his article, Adams described how this tonic, which was made of seven compound drugs and alcohol,^[29] did not have "any nifty authorisation".^[29] Manufacturers sold it at an obscene price and hence made immense profits. His piece of work forced a crackdown on a number of other patents and fraudulent schemes of medicinal companies.

Many other works past muckrakers brought to low-cal a variety of issues in America during the Progressive era.^[29] These writers focused on a broad range of bug including the monopoly of Standard Oil; cattle processing and meat packing; patent medicines; kid labor; and wages, labor, and working conditions in manufacture and agriculture. In a number of instances, the revelations of muckraking journalists led to public outcry, governmental and legal investigations, and, in some cases, legislation was enacted to accost the issues the writers identified, such equally harmful social conditions; pollution; nutrient and product safety standards; sexual harassment; unfair labor practices; fraud; and other matters. The work of the muckrakers in the early years, and those today, span a wide assortment of legal, social, ethical and public policy concerns.

Muckrakers and their works [edit]

Samuel Hopkins Adams (1871–1958) – The Great American Fraud (1905), exposed faux claims about patent medicines.
Paul Y. Anderson (Baronial 29, 1893 – Dec half-dozen, 1938) is best known for his reporting of a race anarchism and the Teapot Dome scandal.
Ray Stannard Baker (1870–1946) – of McClure's & The American Magazine.
Louis D. Brandeis (1856–1941) – published his combined findings of the monopolies of big banks and big concern in his 1914 book Other People's Money And How the Bankers Use It. Later on appointed to the Supreme Court (1916).
Marion Hamilton Carter (1865-1937) - "Pellagra" and "The Vampire of the South" 1909 McClure'due south.
Burton J. Hendrick (1870–1949) – "The Story of Life Insurance" May – November 1906 McClure'due south.
Frances Kellor (1873–1952) – studied chronic unemployment in her book Out of Work (1904).
Thomas William Lawson (1857–1924) Frenzied Finance (1906) on Amalgamated Copper stock scandal.
Edwin Markham (1852–1940) – published an exposé of child labor in Children in Bondage (1914).
Gustavus Myers (1872–1942) – documented abuse in his first volume "The History of Tammany Hall" (1901) unpublished, Revised edition, Boni and Liveright, 1917. His 2d book (in three volumes) related a "History of the Neat American Fortunes" Chicago: Charles H. Kerr & Co., 1909–10; Unmarried volume Modern Library edition, New York, 1936. Other works include "History of The Supreme Court of the United States" Chicago: Charles H. Kerr & Co., 1912. "A History of Canadian Wealth" Chicago: Charles H. Kerr & Co., 1914. "History of Bigotry in the United States" New York: Random Firm, 1943 Published posthumously.
Frank Norris (1870–1902) The Octopus.
Fremont Older (1856–1935) – wrote on San Francisco corruption and on the case of Tom Mooney.
Drew Pearson (1897–1969) – wrote syndicated newspaper cavalcade "Washington Merry-Go-Round".
Jacob Riis (1849–1914) – How the Other Half Lives, the slums.
Charles Edward Russell (1860–1941) – investigated Beef Trust, Georgia's prison.
Upton Sinclair (1878–1968) – The Jungle (1906), US meat-packing industry, and the books in the "Dead Hand" serial that critique the institutions (journalism, education, etc.) that could merely did not prevent these abuses.
John Spargo (1876–1966) – American reformer and author, The Biting Cry of Children (child labor).
Lincoln Steffens (1866–1936) The Shame of the Cities (1904) – uncovered the corruption of several political machines in major cities.
Ida Grand. Tarbell (1857–1944) exposé, The History of the Standard Oil Company.
John Kenneth Turner (1879–1948) – author of Barbarous Mexico (1910), an business relationship of the exploitative debt-peonage system used in Mexico under Porfirio Díaz.
Ida B. Wells (1862–1931) – The Gratis Speech (1892) condemned the flaws in the United states justice system that immune lynching to happen.^[xxx] ^[31]

Disappearance [edit]

The influence of the muckrakers began to fade during the more conservative presidency of William Howard Taft. Corporations and political leaders were also more successful in silencing these journalists every bit advertiser boycotts forced some magazines to become broke. Through their exposés, the nation was changed by reforms in cities, business, politics, and more than. Monopolies such as Standard Oil were broken upwards and political machines fell autonomously; the issues uncovered past muckrakers were resolved and thus the muckrakers of that era were needed no longer.^[32]

Impact [edit]

Co-ordinate to Fred J. Cook, the muckrakers' journalism resulted in litigation or legislation that had a lasting impact, such as the terminate of Standard Oil'south monopoly over the oil industry, the establishment of the Pure Food and Drug Human action of 1906, the creation of the first child labor laws in the United States around 1916. Their reports exposed bribery and abuse at the city and state level, too equally in Congress, that led to reforms and changes in election results.

"The effect on the soul of the nation was profound. It can hardly be considered an accident that the heyday of the muckrakers coincided with i of America's most yeasty and vigorous periods of ferment. The people of the state were angry by the corruptions and wrongs of the historic period – and it was the muckrakers who informed and aroused them. The results showed in the great wave of progressivism and reform cresting in the remarkable spate of legislation that marked the commencement administration of Woodrow Wilson from 1913 to 1917. For this, the muckrakers had paved the way."^[33]

Other changes that resulted from muckraker manufactures include the reorganization of the U.Southward. Navy (after Henry Reuterdahl published a controversial commodity in McClure'south). Muckraking investigations were used to change the way senators were elected past the Seventeenth Amendment to the U.Due south. Constitution and led to authorities agencies to have on watchdog functions.^[32]

Since 1945 [edit]

Some today use "investigative journalism" equally a synonym for muckraking. Carey McWilliams, editor of the Nation, assumed in 1970 that investigative journalism, and reform journalism, or muckraking, were the same type of journalism.^[34] Journalism textbooks point out that McClure'south muckraking standards "Take become integral to the character of mod investigative journalism."^[35] Furthermore, the successes of the early muckrakers take connected to inspire journalists.^[36] ^[37] Moreover, muckraking has go an integral part of journalism in American history. Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein exposed the workings of the Nixon Administration in Watergate, which led to Nixon's resignation. More recently, Edward Snowden disclosed the activities of governmental spying, albeit illegally, which gave the public cognition of the extent of the infringements on their privacy.

Come across also [edit]

History of American newspapers
Whistleblower

References [edit]

^ Filler, Louis (1976). The Muckrakers: New and Enlarged Edition of Crusaders for American Liberalism. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. pp. 361, 367–368, 372. ISBN0-271-01212-9.
^ Herbert Shapiro, ed., The muckrakers and American society (Heath, 1968), contains representative samples likewise equally academic commentary.
^ Judson A. Grenier, "Muckraking the muckrakers: Upton Sinclair and his peers." in David R Colburn and Sandra Pozzetta, eds., Reform and Reformers in the Progressive Era (1983) pp: 71–92.
^ ^a ^b "'Muckraker: two Meanings", The New York Times, April 10, 1985.
^ Lapsansky-Werner, Emma J. United States History: Modern America, Boston, MA: Pearson Learning Solutions, 2011, p. 102.
^ Regier 1957, p. 49.
^ American epoch: a history of the U.s. since the 1890s (1st ed.). New York: Knopf. 1955. p. 62.
^ Brinkley, Alan (February 28, 2007). "Chapter 21: Rise of Progressivism". In Barrosse, Emily (ed.). American History, A Survey (twelfth ed.). Los Angeles, CA, U.s.a.: McGraw Hill. pp. 566–67. ISBN978-0-07-325718-1.
^ ^a ^b Weinberg & Weinberg 1964, p. 2.
^ Steffens 1958, p. 145.
^ Melt 1972, p. 131.
^ "Crucible Of Empire: The Spanish–American War". PBS Online. PBS.org. Archived from the original on Dec seven, 2013. Retrieved Jan 4, 2014.
^ "A New Hospital for the Insane" (Dec. 1876) Brooklyn Daily Hawkeye
^ "An Insane Hospital for Brooklyn" (PDF). New York Times. December 23, 1876. Retrieved January four, 2014.
^ "Nellie Bly". Biography . Retrieved May 2, 2018.
^ Walker, Martin (1983). Powers of the Printing: Twelve of the Globe's Influential Newspapers. New York: Adama Books. pp. 215–217. ISBN0-915361-ten-8.
^ Schudson, Michael (1978). Discovering the News: A Social History of American Newspapers . New York: BasicBooks. p. 79. ISBN9780465016662.
^ Chalmers, David Mark (1964). The Social and Political Ideas of Muckrakers . New York: Citadel Printing. pp. 105–08.
^ Wilson 1970, p. 63.
^ Weinberg & Weinberg 1964, pp. 441–443.
^ Rivers, William Fifty (1970). The Adversaries: Politics and the Press . Boston: Beacon Press. pp. 16–20. ISBN9780807061800.
^ Steffens 1958, pp. 347–359.
^ Stephen E. Lucas, "Theodore Roosevelt'due south 'the human with the muck‐rake': A reinterpretation." Quarterly Journal of Speech 59#iv (1973): 452–462.
^ ^a ^b Roosevelt, Theodore (1958) [1913]. Andrews, Wayne (ed.). The Autobiography, Condensed from the Original Edition, Supplemented by Letters, Speeches, and Other Writings (1st ed.). New York City: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 246–47.
^ John Simkin (September 1997). "Muckraking Journalism". Spartacus Educational. Archived from the original on May vii, 2017. Retrieved May 18, 2017.
^ Gallagher 2006, p. 13.
^ Gilbert King (July 5, 2012). "The Woman Who Took On a Tycoon". Smithsonian Magazine . Retrieved May 17, 2017.
^ ^a ^b "Muckrakers". U.Due south. History Online Textbook . Retrieved January 21, 2014.
^ ^a ^b ^c Weinberg & Weinberg 1964, p. 195.
^ Lee D. Baker (April 1996). "Ida B. Wells-Barnett and Her Passion for Justice". Duke University. Archived from the original on May eight, 2017. Retrieved May eighteen, 2017.
^ "Ida B. Wells". Biography. April 2, 2017. Archived from the original on Feb 23, 2017. Retrieved February 17, 2017.
^ ^a ^b Daly, Christopher (2012). Roofing America : a narrative history of a nation's journalism. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press. pp. 147–148. ISBN978-1-55849-911-9. OCLC 793012714.
^ Cook 1972, p. 179.
^ James L. Aucoin, The Evolution of American Investigative Journalism (University of Missouri Press, 2007) p. 90.
^ W. David Sloan; Lisa Mullikin Parcell (2002). American Journalism: History, Principles, Practices. McFarland. pp. 211–213. ISBN9780786413713. .
^ Cecelia Tichi, Exposés and excess: Muckraking in America, 1900/2000 (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2013)
^ Stephen Hess, Whatever Happened to the Washington Reporters, 1978–2012 (2012)

Bibliography [edit]

Applegate, Edd. Muckrakers: A Biographical Dictionary of Writers and Editors (Scarecrow Press, 2008); 50 entries, by and large American contents
Cook, Fred J (1972), The Muckrakers: Crusading Journalists who Changed America , Garden City, NY: Doubleday & Co .
Gallagher, Aileen (2006), The Muckrakers, American Journalism During the Age of Reform, New York: The Rosen Publishing Grouping .
Lucas, Stephen E. "Theodore Roosevelt's 'the man with the muck‐rake': A reinterpretation." Quarterly Journal of Speech 59#4 (1973): 452–462.
Regier, CC (1957), The Era of the Muckrakers, Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith .
Steffens, Lincoln (1958), The Autobiography of Lincoln Steffens (abridged ed.), New York: Harcourt, Caryatid & World
Swados, Harvey, ed. (1962), Years of Conscience: The Muckrakers, Cleveland: Earth Publishing Co .
Weinberg, Arthur; Weinberg, Lila, eds. (1964), The Muckrackers: The Era in Journalism that Moved America to Reform, the Near Significant Magazine Manufactures of 1902–1912, New York: Capricon Books .
Wilson, Harold Due south. (1970), McClure'due south Magazine and the Muckrakers, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, ISBN069104600X .